WebChefs

22/07/2020

16/07/2020

La troisième révolution technologique va intégrer le travail humain avant 2030.

16/07/2020

Robot cuisinier chez MacDO

16/05/2020

https://fr.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liste_des_restaurants_deux_et_trois_%C3%A9toiles_du_Guide_Michelin

Cette liste est exhaustive en ce qui concerne les restaurants « trois étoiles » et « deux étoiles » français sur la base du guide 2020[1],[2] et suisses sur la base du guide 2018.

12/05/2020

Bu dosyanın yapısı

Bu klasörde gezinmek için doğrudan farklı bölümlere erişebilirsiniz:

HACCP: giriş

HACCP yaklaşımının 7 ilkesi

HACCP yönteminin 12 adımı

CCP, PRP, PRPo?

HACCP Planı (Codex Alimentarius sisteminde belirtildiği gibi)

PMS veya Sağlık Kontrol Planı (Avrupa Mevzuatı tarafından öngörülen şekilde)

Yönetmelikler

Kodeks Alimentarius

HACCP: giriş

FoodGıda riskini kontrol etmek için "seçim" yöntemi, aşağıdakiler için bir kısaltma olan "HACCP yöntemi" olarak bilinir:

tehlike
analiz
kritik
kontrol
makas

"Resmi" Fransızca çeviri (Avrupa Direktiflerinin Fransızca versiyonunda olduğu gibi geçerli Fransız Hukuku metinlerinde) "Risk Analizi, Kontrol (veya Kontrolleri) için Kritik Noktalardır". [Kritik Noktaların Risk Analizi ve Kontrolü için bazen “ARMPC” bile buluyoruz)

Tehlike analizinden bahsetmeyi tercih ettiğim için bu çeviri beni tatmin etmiyor. Nitekim, sadece İngilizce "Tehlike" kelimesi daha genel olarak "risk" ile "risk" (ve dolayısıyla çeviri hatası yapmıyorum) anlamına gelmez, aynı zamanda risk asimile edilemez. dil, tehlikeye. Tehlike istenmeyen bir olaydır, hasar için bir potansiyeldir, risk ise bu olayın gerçekleşme olasılığının ve bu olayın sonuçlarının potansiyel yerçekiminin bir fonksiyonudur.

Bir örnek verelim: bir buzul üzerinde yürüyen dağcı için tehlike, kişinin kayma ve kendini öldürebileceği yarık ile temsil edilir. Ancak, söz konusu dağcı sabah tırmanıyorsa, bir rehberle iplenirse, bir buz baltası ve kramponla donatılmış olduğunu düşme riskinin minimum olduğunu kolayca görebiliriz. Öte yandan, dağcı öğleden sonra tek başına, spor ayakkabılarında, ipsiz ve krampon olmadan tırmanıyorsa risk maksimumdur.

Bundan sonra, tehlikeyi ortadan kaldırmak daha etkilidir (Grenoble'ın buz pateni pistinde yürürken, ölümcül düşüş tehlikesini iptal ederiz - ve alay da öldürmediği için ...), (ipin çapını artırarak veya buzdaki basamakları keserek) riski azaltmaya çalışmaktan daha fazla.

HACCP ilk olarak NASA, ABD ordusu ve Pillsbury Society tarafından 1960'larda Apollo projesinin bir parçası olarak geliştirildi. Astronotların uçuş sırasında yiyecekleri tarafından hastalanmayacaklarını kesin olarak garanti etmek bir soruydu (biletin fiyatı ve yolculuktaki dinlenme alanlarının azlığı göz önüne alındığında, endişe o kadar önemsiz değildi! ). Bu yöntem daha sonra Codex Alimentarius tarafından resmileştirildi (aşağıya bakın) ve gıdanın tüm üretim, taşıma, depolama ve dağıtım aşamalarına uygulanır.

HACCP'nin ele alındığı tehlikeler üç tiptir:

Biyolojik tehlikeler: bizim durumumuzda esas olarak patojenik bakteriler, patojenik mayalar ve küfler, aynı zamanda virüsler, prionlar, parazitler;

Tamamen istenmeyen kirleticiler olan kimyasal tehlikeler: pestisitler, ağır metaller, veteriner artıkları, dioksinler, metanol, doğal toksik ürünleri (örneğin risin, digitalis) unutmadan biyolojik kökenli kimyasal tehlikeler: alerjenler ve içine verilmemiş olsalar bile, gıdada ortaya çıkabilecek mikotoksinler (aflatoksinler, patulin, okratoksin, vb.);

Tüketiciyi incitmesi muhtemel sert veya keskin gövdeli fiziksel tehlikeler: cam, metal, taşlar, tahta kıymıkları, kemik döküntüleri, kenarlar, plastik parçalar ... Ayrıca böcekler ve Tarifte belirtilmeyen diğer öğeler.

Biyolojik ve fiziksel tehlikelerin yarısı alerjenlerdir. Saldırganlığa verilen yanıt bireysel olduğundan, bunlar kontrol edilmesi zor tehlikelerdir. Bazı insanlar yarım yer fıstığı yutarak ölebilir, bazıları yumurta yuturlarsa hastanede kalırlar ... Bu tehlikeler kimyasal tehlikeler olarak ele alınacaktır, çünkü zayıflatıcı tedavilerin hiçbir etkisi olmayacaktır.

Sadece tüketicinin maruz kaldığı tehlikelerle ilgileniyoruz: HACCP, CHSCT'nin veya ürün geliştirme yaklaşımının yerine geçmez.

sayfanın başına dön

HACCP yaklaşımının 7 ilkesi

Burada ele alınan 7 ilke Kodeks Alimentarius Komisyonu tarafından tanımlanan ilkelerdir. Bu ilkeler, yöntemin 12 adımında pratik bir şekilde ele alınmaktadır (aşağıya bakınız.)

Risk (tehlike) analizi yapma Bu, tehlikelerin tanımlanmasını içerir; görünme olasılıklarını değerlendirmek; tehlikelerin kontrolünü garanti altına almak için uygulanacak önleyici tedbirleri tanımlamak. Bu en büyük iş! Aşağıdakiler "klasik" Kalite Güvencesine çok benzer.

Kritik Kontrol Noktalarını (ÇKP) belirleyin: belirlenen tüm noktalar arasında, hijyenik kalitenin, ürünün güvenliğinin korunması için kontrolü kritik olanların hangilerinin olduğunu belirlemek gerekir. En kolay değil ve bunun için daha sonra tartışacağımız araçlar var.

Kritik eşikleri ayarlayın. Her ÇKP için kontrolünü sağlamak için sınırları aşılmaması gerekir. Bir ÇKP'nin birkaç kritik limiti olabilir (örneğin pastörizasyon için sıcaklık ve süre).

ÇKP'leri kontrol etmek için bir izleme sistemi kurun. analizler yapmalı, ölçümler yapmalı veya veri kaydetmelisiniz. ÇKP'lerin iyi kontrol edilmesini sağlamak.

İzleme, bir ÇKP'nin kontrol altında olmadığını gösterdiğinde gerçekleştirilecek düzeltici önlemleri belirleyin. Bunlar, işlem adımından sorumlu operatörün, sürecine hakim olma koşullarını yeniden kazanmak için atması gereken acil eylemlerdir. Bu düzeltici önlemlerin, ISO 9001 Standardının gerektirdiği ve hantal olabilen bir kuruluşu harekete geçiren “düzeltici faaliyetlerle” bir ilgisi yoktur.

HACCP sisteminin etkili bir şekilde çalıştığını doğrulamak için doğrulama prosedürlerini uygulayın. Sistem çalışırken, herhangi bir sapmayı önlemek ve etkinliğini kontrol etmek için prosedürler kurmak zorunludur. Örneğin, termometreyi veya metal dedektörünü kontrol etmeyi düşünün. Ayrıca personelin çalıştırma prosedürlerini bilmesini ve bunlara uymasını sağlamak da gereklidir. Burada sürekli iyileştirme üzerine bir yansımayla birlikte uygulamaların denetlenmesinden bahsediyoruz. Tarifte veya süreçte yapılan değişikliklerin dikkate alındığı ve HACCP planının güncel olduğu da garanti edilmelidir.

Bir dosya oluşturun (prosedürler ve kayıtlar). Çeşitli belgeleri, prosedürleri, prosedürleri, kayıtları dikkate alan bir belgesel sistem oluşturun. Son olarak, yetkililere ve müşterilere sunabileceğimiz belgeler bunlar.

09/05/2020

Bonjour
L'activite de cette page c'est pour développer l'activité traiteur et restaration de collectivités
Merci
En cas de besoin d'un service: contacter Rachid LAABI
0603875751:
NOUS SOMMES EXIGEANT SUR LA QUALITÉ ET RAPPORT PRIX QUI CORRESPOND A VOTRE BUDGET PROPOSER VOS SERVICES ET VOUS SEREZ SATISFAIT
MERCI

14/04/2020

The true history of Moroccan cuisine / a book by Paula Wulfert (The Moroccan Empire's Kitchen)
We will search for it everywhere / and we will follow it at all times / and we will protect it from all impurities / in order to transmit to the world this history full of tastes, a gift from the generous God / pure Moroccan taste that does not have a comparative and no competitor on the ground / formed through centuries and centuries of refinement And creativity / nature raised him and his features formed hands / Created by the fingers and preserved by the folds of the mountains / between the arms of the atlas grew up and between the valleys are / wrote about it scholars and the poets sing about it / we will develop and protect and organize and publish it to stay and continue for centuries and centuries.
The American researcher Paula Wolfert traced the fate of Moroccan cuisine throughout ancient and modern history, starting from long ages until the times of his glory in the empires of the Idrisids, Almoravids, Almohads, Marinids, Sa’idis and Alevis. Written by Al-Hawari Al-Husayri écrit par Houari Hossin. Definition of
History of Moroccan cuisine
Moroccan cuisine has long been considered one of the most diverse kitchens in the world. The reason is due to the interaction of Morocco with the outside world for centuries. Moroccan cuisine is a mixture of Berber, Arabic, African, Romanian, Vandali and Phoenician cuisine, Maghreb and Middle Eastern geography, the Mediterranean and Africa . Chefs and chefs in Moroccan cuisine over the centuries in Fes, Meknes, Marrakesh, Rabat and Tetouan, in El-Ayoun, Safi, in Agadir and Essaouira in Oujda and Erfoud in Khenifra and Nador in Laayoune and Erzat are the ones who created the basis for what Moroccan cuisine is known today Also, Moroccan cuisine is the first Arab and African, and the second global after France
Morocco as a source and a meeting place for many civilizations, its cuisine was influenced by the authentic Amazigh cuisine in addition to the Arab Andalusian kitchens; the kitchens that the Moors carried when they left Spain, the Ottoman Turkish and Middle Eastern cuisine, and kitchens brought by the Arabs.
The history of Morocco is translated in its kitchen. The fleeing Abbasids refugees left Baghdad in the Middle Ages and settled in Morocco, bringing with them the traditional recipes that have become common in Morocco forgotten in the Middle East. This is proven by what al-Baghdadi wrote in his writings (12th century AD) about Iraqi recipes and similarities with contemporary Moroccan dishes. A distinctive feature is cooking with fruits with meat like quince with lamb or apricot with chicken. Likewise, the effects on the Moroccan cuisine that came with Morischeon (Muslim refugees) who were expelled from Spain during the Spanish Inquisition.
According to Paula Wolfert, an American specialist in Moroccan cuisine and the author of the most famous book on Moroccan cuisine
“In my opinion, four things are necessary for a nation to develop a great cuisine. The first is an abundance of ingredients, a rich country. Secondly, the diversity of cultural influences: the history of the nation, including its foreign dominance, usually returns the secrets of cooking from its imperial adventures. Third, a great civilization, and if not A country has a bright day in its history, perhaps it will not have a great kitchen; great cuisine and a great civilization go hand in hand. Finally, an elegant palace life, without royal kitchens, without Versailles or the Forbidden City in Beijing, in short, requires a demand for cultural complexes The imagination of the nation's chefs will not be a challenge.
Morocco produces a large group of Mediterranean fruits and vegetables, and even some tropical ones. The country produces large quantities of sheep, poultry, livestock and fish that form the basis for the launch of the kitchen.
Spices on the central market in Agadir, Marrakech, Taroudant and Meknes
Spices are widely used in Moroccan cuisine. The import of spices into Morocco started thousands of years ago, and many items, such as saffron from Taliouine, mint and olive from Meknes, oranges and lemons from Berkane and Kenitra Fes, are local products. The group of spices includes cinnamon, cumin (cumin), khargum (turmeric), skincare (ginger), lizar (black pepper), roasting (red pepper), anise seeds, sesame seeds, sesame (coriander), maidenous (parsley), thyme, celery, saffron My country and mint from the zodiac territory
Structure of meals
Lunch is the main meal, except for the holy month of Ramadan. The official way of serving a meal begins with a series of hot and cold salads, followed by tagine. Bread is eaten with every meal. The next dish is usually with lamb or chicken, followed by couscous with meat and vegetables. Then, at the end of the meal, a cup of mint tea, popular in Morocco, is served. It is common when three fingers use their hands to eat, and use bread for dipping
Main dishes
Moroccan couscous
List of dishes in Morocco
The main Moroccan meal most popular with couscous is very old. Chicken is the most popular types of meat that is eaten in Morocco. The most common red meat in Morocco is beef, then lamb. In North Africa, sheep have a lot of fat concentrated in the tail, which means that the Moroccan pregnancy does not have the sharp flavor, which is usually found in western sheep and gives them an unwanted taste.
Among the most famous Moroccan dishes are couscous, pastilla, Marouzia, Tajine, Tangier, Zaalouk, Al-Bisara, Al-Harsha, Malawi, Al-Baghrir and Al-Harira, Al-Rafaiseh. Although calories are soup, it is considered a full meal and is usually served with dates during Ramadan.
Sweets: a list of Moroccan sweets
Moroccan sweets are not necessarily served at the end of the meal. The candy group Kaab Ghazal ("Deer Horns"), which is pastry stuffed with almond paste and refuted with sugar. Another dessert is honey cakes, a piece of fried dough dipped in a honey pot with sesame seeds. Chebbakia candy candy is eaten during Ramadan. Coke desserts are coconut cake, brioat, caramel, exotic, hatch, slaw and silenced.
Beverage Tea Culture (Morocco)
The most popular drink is mint green tea. Traditionally, a good form of mint tea in Morocco is a form of art and drinking it with friends and family is one of the most important rituals of today. The method of pouring tea is as important as its quality. Tea is combined with the presentation of sugar cones or cubes.
Moroccan fast food
Selling traditional fast food on the street is a long-standing trend, and the best example of this is the Jemaa El Fna square in Marrakech. Beginning in the 1980s, new restaurants serving "bocadillo" (a Spanish word for sandwich, widely used in Morocco) began to appear. The bocadillo is a baguette baguette filled with salads and some type of meat, or similar tortilla, which is also a term widely used in Morocco.
During the 1990s, a new trend began to emerge. Milk stores and new products (Mahlba in Moroccan Arab) as it spread all over the cities in Morocco. These milkshakes generally offer all kinds of dairy products, juices, and breakfast as well as bocadillos, as they compete fiercely with restaurants that have been around for years.
Moroccan cooking gained international fame, stormed into the kitchens of Europe, and its varieties sided on the throne of the most sought-after foods in the world, such as couscous, calories, and tagine, so that some tourists specially intended for Morocco to taste Moroccan food. .
Moroccan cooking is famous for containing a large amount of spices, especially spices, and this is what distinguishes it from other types of cooking in the world. Moroccans consider food that does not contain spices to be "cold" and do not like it, and at the level of modern history we can divide Moroccan cooking into two periods that are before Colonial post-colonial period.
"This division remains relatively in one form or another, but it really puts us in front of two types of Moroccan cooking, traditional cuisine, and modern cuisine," says Mohamed Taqi (social researcher). The traditional kitchen depends on ovens made of dust, clay and ceramic and earthenware as well, and it may not be subject to only discretionary and unspecified measures, whether in terms of timing or amounts, but it remains the most distinctive and popular among visitors and tourists alike. “The rituals that accompany the preparation and presentation of Moroccan cuisine are subject to the strength of customs and traditions, and what grandparents left in this field, which increases the reputation of Moroccan cuisine worldwide.”
And he confirms that the history of Morocco is known through its distinguished cuisine. “The Arabs brought with them cooking methods, and the Andalusian influence is apparent in all recipes, especially the“ pastilla ”and the types of sponges, tarts and priotes are inspired by Chinese Asian cooking. The researcher adds that each region in Morocco has its own distinct meal It is famous for, "there are, for example," the Marrakech tagine "," the "faded democrat" and "the tangi al-tingi".
The city of Marrakesh is famous for its tangerine food cooked in the traditional oven, as well as for closed and mazkaldi tajines, and in Casablanca we note the presence of different types of foreign cooking, as distinct cooking elements, such as Italian dough and Chinese noodles, as well as various types of mushrooms and cheese, these extraneous elements, were printed. Cooking in this city with a distinct creative character, revolutionized traditional cooking.
Distinguished dishes such as roasted and durable ribs with Chinese noodles, kofta and mushrooms also appeared, as well as pastilla with seafood, in addition to fish, meat and grilled chicken flavored with spices, so we find a mixture of traditional and modern nature that opened the way for the creativity of Moroccan chef.
The "couscous" meal is the most popular Moroccan meal, and it is the common denominator among all regions. It is the most popular and popular among Moroccans. It is a tradition known in Morocco that Friday is the day of couscous meal, and a Moroccan family rarely fails this date. The couscous meal itself is divided into several types. There are couscous "seven vegetables" and couscous with the head of the lamb and couscous with onions and raisins (tafsa). As for desert areas, couscous is mixed with goat's milk or sheep before starting the cooking process.
As for the "Harira", it is the undisputed Ramadan meal, because all Moroccan families break the fast with the Harira drink, which is a mixture of a large number of vegetables and spices served in concave pottery utensils called locally as "Zalayf", and it may take more than three hours to prepare them sometimes, so Do not be surprised if you notice in the month of Ramadan before sunset that the same pleasant smell comes from all homes without exception.
And it is considered that the Moroccan mint tea is a symbol of welcome and hospitality, as it is the first thing given to the guests, and it drinks hot, indicating the warm reception and warmth of affection. The ways of preparing it also vary from one region to another. However, desert tea remains the most popular, as it is not served intensively, but in a small glass cup filled to the center only. This is not a lack of good hospitality, but because this small amount is the juice that you may drink of tea for a whole day, where it is boiled three times until Its color approaches black, and it becomes very heavy.
As for Moroccan sweets, the most famous of them is called “al-Gharibah”, which is a mixture of oil, sugar, butter and flour, in addition to other sweets such as “Ka’b Ghazal” and sweets of dates and “Al-Malouza”. All these sweets are offered in all weddings, occasions and holidays. That accompanies the calorie during Ramadan at the iftar table in a collective tradition as usual.
And Moroccan weddings would not have survived the virtual cooking law, as they are in turn subject to a specific system of serving tea cups at first accompanied by sweets, and after about two hours have been served dinner divided into two meals: the first meal is meat with "sweet plum", and the second meal is chicken With olives and eggs, various fruits may be served at the end depending on the material capacity
Moroccan cooking is not just a meal one eats and then gets up expressing admiration and ends up. The nobility and symbolism are the first to print the most famous meals in Morocco, and it suffices to know that the reception of the guest in Morocco is only with cups of warm tea and at the level of modern history, we can divide Moroccan cooking into two periods
- Traditional kitchen: It is based on ovens made of soil, clay, and earthen and ceramic utensils. And it may only be subject to discretionary and unspecified measures - whether in terms of timing or amounts - but it remains the most distinctive and popular among visitors and tourists alike.
- Modern kitchen: It depends on modern tools such as microwave oven and aluminum utensils, and it is subject to specific standards and conservative control - despite this - on the general form of the traditional kitchen in general, and it is most used in Moroccan urban homes by the Moroccans themselves
As mentioned above, Moroccan cooking is not just about cooking food and eating it, as the rituals that accompany the process as a whole, in terms of preparation and timing, make it subject to the power of customs and traditions and what grandparents left in this field. And every region in Morocco has its own distinctive meal that is famous for, there For example - "Tajin Marrakesh", "Fassi Maqrouta" and Karan Al-Wajdi "Kalnti"
The history of Morocco is known through its distinguished cuisine. The Arabs brought with them methods of cooking and Andalusian influence, apparent in all recipes, especially pastilla, sponges and tarifs..and braioutes are inspired by Chinese "Asian" cooking.
Every smell reminds us of a historical era, or a specific country, and each Moroccan region has a meal that distinguishes it from others, for example: the effect of Jewish cooking in Essaouira and Jadida, due to their embrace for centuries of the Jewish community.
Marrakech, famous for the tangerine cooked in the traditional oven (French), as well as the sealed and Mizkaldi tagine
In Al-Bayda .. The city with many origins and peculiarities, we note the presence of different types of foreign cooking, as distinct cooking elements, such as Italian dough and Chinese noodles, as well as various types of mushrooms and cheese were leaked to them. These extraneous elements printed oval with a distinct creative character, the latest revolution in cooking Traditional
_ Also featured distinct dishes such as roasted and durable ribs with Chinese noodles, kofta and mushrooms, as well as pastilla with seafood, in addition to fish, meat and grilled chicken flavored with spice flavor, so we find a mixture of traditional and modern character that opened the way for the creativity of Moroccan chef
The most famous Moroccan cuisine
Couscous: And if the "couscous" meal is the common denominator among all regions, it is the most popular and popular meal. It is a tradition known in Morocco that Friday is the day of the couscous meal, and the Moroccan family rarely fails on this date. And the couscous meal itself is divided into several types. There are couscous "the seven vegetables" and couscous with the head (head of the lamb) and couscous with onions and raisins (tafsa). As for the desert areas, the couscous is mixed with goat's milk or sheep before starting the cooking process.
Calories
As for "Harira", it is the undisputed Ramadan meal, because all Moroccan families break the fast - after dates or water - which is a mixture of a large number of vegetables and spices served as a drink in concave pottery vessels called "Zalayf". Preparing them for more than three hours sometimes, so do not be surprised if you notice in the month of Ramadan before sunset that the same pleasant smell is emitted from all homes without exception
Moroccan tea
As for moroccan mint tea, it is a symbol of welcome and hospitality, as it is the first thing served to guests. It drinks hot, indicating the warm reception and warmth of affection. The methods of preparing it also vary from one region to another. However, the desert tea remains the most famous, because it is not served intensively, but in a small glass cup filled to the middle only, and this is not a lack of good hospitality, but because this small amount is the juice of what you may drink of tea for a whole day. Where it is boiled three times until its color approaches black, then it becomes very heavy
sweets
On the other hand, Moroccan sweets of one type have started a phrase called "al-Gharibah" - which is a mixture of oil, sugar, butter and flour only - in addition to other sweets such as gazelle heels - dessert dates - cakes - blues - and all these sweets are presented in All the joys, occasions and religious holidays. There is the "Shabakiya", which is the dessert that accompanies the calories during the month of Ramadan on the iftar table in a collective tradition as usual.
Banquet for weddings
Moroccan weddings would not have survived the default cooking law, as they in turn are subject to a specific system of serving tea cups at first accompanied by sweets. And after about two hours have passed, dinner is divided into two meals: the first meal is meat with honey prunes, and the second meal is chicken with olives the White . And various fruits may be presented at the end, depending on the physical capacity of the wedding owners
Before entering the marital home, the groom offers dates and milk to his bride, who do the same with him, as a sign of each other's care and willingness to take care of him. In general, Moroccan cooking is known for containing a large amount of spices, especially spices, and this is what distinguishes it from other types of cooking in the world, perhaps. Moroccans consider food that does not contain spices to be "cold" and never like it
Finally, we say that Moroccan cooking of all kinds is like a language that speaks with what the tongue is incapable of welcoming and hospitality .. and it is what everyone who visits Morocco observes without exception .... it follows a suivre
Written by Al-Hawari Al-Husayri écrit par Hossin Houari
https://m.facebook.com/patrimoinealimentairemarocainhouari/

صفحة لحفظ التراث الغذائي المغربي و للتعريف
Patrimoine de la no

13/04/2020

INTERVIEW

Jacques Attali : « Notre modèle actuel d'alimentation ne peut pas durer »

Dans « Histoires de l'alimentation », son nouveau livre, Jacques Attali montre le rôle central qu'a joué la nourriture dans l'évolution du monde. Il appelle aussi à un changement profond de nos comportements alimentaires pour sauver notre planète.

Éditos & Analyses

Jacques Attali, président de Planet Finance. (Benoit DECOUT/REA)

Par Nicolas Barré, Daniel Fortin

Publié le 19 avr. 2019 à 7h42Mis à jour le 19 avr. 2019 à 13h59

Vous écrivez en préambule de votre livre que « la nourriture est, depuis l'aube des temps, bien plus qu'un besoin vital ». On découvre, en effet, à vous lire, à quel point elle a joué - et joue encore - un rôle central dans la structuration même de nos sociétés.

Jacques Attali : Toutes nos constructions sociales sont nées de la nourriture. A mesure que l'homme progresse dans son évolution, son alimentation change et s'améliore. On passe de la cueillette à la chasse, puis de la chasse à la culture. Les outils comme les armes se complexifient. L'alimentation devient carnivore. De ce fait, la population humaine s'accroît.

Cette démographie galopante implique que les hommes ne peuvent plus se contenter de ce que la nature leur offre pour se nourrir. Ils doivent s'organiser. On passe du nomadisme à la sédentarisation. Il y a 7.000 ans, les hommes commencent à s'installer autour des plaines fertiles. C'est alors qu'apparaît la nécessité de structurer nos sociétés.

Et vous écrivez que cet impératif de nourrir une communauté humaine de plus en plus nombreuse va déboucher sur la constitution d'empires.

PUBLICITÉ

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En effet, on le voit par exemple en Mésopotamie. 6.000 ans avant Jésus-Christ, les paysans doivent construire des barrages pour surmonter les inondations et produire davantage. Pour y parvenir, il faut se regrouper en ensembles plus vastes. D'où l'apparition du concept d'empire, d'abord en Mésopotamie, puis en Egypte, plus t**d en Chine, toujours autour des fleuves.

C'est aussi à cette époque que le repas devient central dans nos modes de vie.

Oui, le repas sédentaire, pris en commun, devient très vite le lieu essentiel de l'organisation sociale. Dans les traces écrites que nous avons retrouvées en provenance des différentes civilisations humaines aux alentours de - 7.000, les festins ou banquets prennent forme : il y a le repas des dieux, les repas entre les divinités et les hommes, les repas entre les monarques. Ces derniers, les repas politiques, prennent naissance environ 3.000 ans avant notre ère. La nourriture n'y est plus qu'un support de l'essentiel qui est ailleurs : il s'agit là de former un consensus entre les élites, d'organiser les pouvoirs. Et l'on observe que l'obsession permanente, c'est de donner à manger au peuple.

Et quand on n'y parvient plus, comme ce sera le cas en France en 1789, arrive la révolution.

En permanence, partout, le manque de nourriture est la cause principale des soulèvements. L'empire chinois s'est effondré à plusieurs reprises sur l'impossibilité de donner à manger au peuple, l'empire égyptien aussi et la Révolution française, en effet, est provoquée et exacerbée par des erreurs de gestion publique en matière d'approvisionnement et des situations climatiques terribles qui se succèdent pour aboutir, en juin 1789, à une envolée des prix du blé, lesquels atteignent à cette date leur plus haut au cours du siècle. C'est alors que les paysans français s'allient aux bourgeois contre les dignitaires du régime, ce qui provoquera à terme la chute de la monarchie dans notre pays.

Plus t**d, la France, dans son obsession de nourrir sa population, continuera du reste d'entretenir un rapport très particulier à son agriculture qui la conduira notamment - pour son bien ou pour son mal - à ret**der les migrations massives des paysans vers les villes.

Mais l'on pourrait citer bien d'autres exemples comme ce qui s'est passé en Allemagne où la montée d'Hi**er - on ne l'a pas suffisamment souligné - est très largement due à l'effondrement de la classe paysanne et à la famine qui a suivi.

L'un des points forts de votre livre est cette thèse pour le moins subversive que vous y défendez, selon laquelle le pire ennemi du repas, c'est le capitalisme. Expliquez-nous.

Manger est, en effet, un acte subversif pour le capitalisme. Car lorsque vous mangez, c'est du temps que vous passez à ne pas faire autre chose, vous ne produisez pas. Donc il faut à tout prix réduire le temps et l'argent consacré au repas. Ce sera la révolution américaine du milieu du XIXe siècle, qui donnera le coup d'envoi à l'industrialisation de l'alimentation. Celle-ci va se propager et déterminer encore aujourd'hui le rapport des hommes à la nourriture.

Elle est d'autant plus étonnante que les nombreux migrants venus d'Europe ont choisi les Etats-Unis pour l'abondance qu'ils espèrent y trouver. Or on leur fait vite comprendre qu'ils doivent y renoncer.

C'est l'alliance entre Will Keith Kellogg et Henry John Heinz qui va déterminer ce qui est devenu l'alimentation contemporaine. M. Kellog, qui est proche des évangélistes, dit : « C'est péché de trouver du plaisir à manger. » M. Heinz lui répond : « Mettez une petite sauce sur la nourriture pour en masquer le mauvais goût. »

Or tout découle de cette alliance. On va consacrer de moins en moins d'argent à se nourrir, ce qui va ouvrir la voie à d'autres consommations. La conséquence, c'est la destruction du temps passé au repas. Presque partout dans le monde sa durée a été considérablement réduite. Elle est de moins d'une heure désormais en moyenne dans le monde. Le capitalisme américain va se développer sur le dénigrement de toutes les dimensions du repas. On mange vite, souvent au travail, de moins en moins en famille et cet état de fait structure des sociétés où l'on devient de plus en plus solitaire.

Vous affirmez que le XXe siècle a été le pire de tous sur le plan de l'alimentation. Pourquoi ?

La catastrophe est double. Il y a d'abord, on vient de le voir, la quasi-disparition du repas. Il y a ensuite la nature de ce que l'on mange. Pour les classes les plus pauvres, le problème reste hélas quasi inchangé, il réside dans la difficulté même à trouver de quoi se nourrir. Pour les classes moyennes ou supérieures, c'est la nature des produits consommés qui change.

Cela commence comme une douce symphonie. Au milieu du XIXe siècle, sous l'impulsion des armées, notamment celles de Napoléon, on généralise la nourriture portable. Le café, le chocolat le lait et plus t**d le corned-beef. Au XXe siècle, c'est l'invention du fast-food qui explose aux Etats-Unis. Le modèle américain devient planétaire. Le sucre de maïs, désastreux pour la santé, se généralise dans les aliments, dans les sodas. L'artificialisation chimique s'installe pour atteindre aujourd'hui son paroxysme. Notez que ce sont toujours des chimistes qui inventent les sodas. Et que étymologiquement, le mot « soda » vient de « soude ». Si l'on s'en souvenait, on en boirait peut-être moins.

Mais n'est-ce pas cette industrialisation qui met désormais à l'abri des famines une grande partie de l'humanité ?

C'est tout à fait vrai, on le constate dans le monde indien ou en Chine, mais à quel prix ? Avec quels chèques tirés sur l'avenir ? On a, certes, créé les conditions provisoires d'une absence de famine mais à l'aide d'un modèle qui n'est pas généralisable ni durable à terme à cause de la consommation d'eau ou de l'utilisation massive d'engrais qu'il impose.

Dans ce contexte, comment nourrir les 10 milliards d'êtres humains qui devraient peupler la planète en 2050 ?

Il existe deux voies possibles. Une voie vraisemblable et une autre souhaitable. Le vraisemblable est que l'on va trouver progressivement des substituts, sous forme de viande artificielle, d'algues, d'insectes - 2 milliards d'êtres humains en mangent déjà régulièrement -, ce qui va globalement nous conduire à devenir de plus en plus végétariens. Ce serait du reste un retour aux sources. Je rappelle que, dans la Bible, Adam et Eve sont végétariens. On ne commence à manger de la viande qu'à partir de Noé.

On peut aussi imaginer un scénario plus souhaitable, celui de la désindustrialisation de l'alimentation. C'est notamment ce que préconise la FAO (Organisation des Nations unies pour l'alimentation, NDLR). Celle-ci imagine un modèle idéal qui permettrait de nourrir 10 milliards de personnes exclusivement en bio. Mais cela suppose des transformations gigantesques de l'agriculture, du régime de la propriété des sols, de la formation des paysans. Cela implique aussi des réglementations très strictes imposées aux géants de l'agroalimentaire. En matière de composition des produits, d'emballage. Pour les consommateurs, cela suppose de se fournir à proximité de chez soi avec des ingrédients de saison.

Industrialiser la bio pour la démocratiser

Tout ceci est évidemment possible en théorie, beaucoup plus difficile à réaliser dans la pratique. Ce sont des mutations structurantes de l'organisation sociale. S'il y a un jour une vraie révolution politique majeure, c'est dans l'agriculture et l'alimentation qui en seront à l'origine.

Nous parlions au début de cet entretien du rôle de la nourriture dans la constitution des empires. Peut-elle, à l'inverse, précipiter leur disparition ou à tout le moins leur affaiblissement ?

J'en suis persuadé. Et quand je dis cela, je pense évidemment aux Etats-Unis. Regardez ce qui s'y passe, notamment dans le domaine de l'obésité qui détruit littéralement leur population sans que les pouvoirs publics, prisonniers de lobbys puissants soient en mesure d'enrayer ce fléau. Aujourd'hui, rappelons-le, l'espérance de vie recule dans ce pays , en partie à cause de la façon dont ses habitants se nourrissent. Rappelons que l'empire romain a été détruit en partie par des erreurs de gestion en matière d'alimentation.

Si l'on veut construire à terme une gastronomie durable, respectueuse de l'environnement, il faut en passer par un capitalisme maîtrisé. Et de ce point de vue, la technologie peut nous aider. Bientôt les frigos seront connectés . Et le maître du frigo sera la compagnie d'assurances, qui aura eu accès à vos données. Vous saurez alors vers quel sort vous attend selon la façon dont vous vous nourrissez. Or rien de tel que la peur de la mort pour nous faire accepter l'inacceptable, en l'espèce, un changement profond de nos comportements alimentaires.

INTERVIEW

Jacques Attali: "Our current food model cannot last"

In “Food Stories”, his new book, Jacques Attali shows the central role that food has played in the evolution of the world. It also calls for a profound change in our eating habits to save our planet.

Editorials & Analysis

Jacques Attali, president of Planet Finance. (Benoit DECOUT / REA)

By Nicolas Barré, Daniel Fortin

Posted on Apr 19, 2019 at 7:42 am Updated on Apr 19, 2019 at 1:59 pm

You write in the preamble to your book that "food has been more than a basic need since the dawn of time". We discover, indeed, to read to you, to what extent it has played - and still plays - a central role in the very structuring of our societies.

Jacques Attali: All our social constructions are born from food. As man progresses in his evolution, his diet changes and improves. We go from gathering to hunting, then from hunting to culture. Tools like weapons are becoming more complex. Food becomes carnivorous. As a result, the human population is increasing.

This galloping demography implies that men can no longer be satisfied with what nature offers them for food. They have to organize. We move from nomadism to sedentarization. 7.000 years ago, men began to settle around the fertile plains. It is then that the need arises to structure our societies.

And you write that this imperative to feed a growing human community will lead to the creation of empires.

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Indeed, we see it for example in Mesopotamia. 6,000 years BC, peasants had to build dams to overcome the floods and produce more. To achieve this, we must group together into larger groups. Hence the appearance of the concept of empire, first in Mesopotamia, then in Egypt, later in China, always around rivers.

It was also at this time that meals became central to our lifestyles.

Yes, the sedentary meal, taken together, quickly becomes the essential place for social organization. In the written traces that we found coming from the different human civilizations around - 7000, the feasts or banquets take shape: there is the meal of the gods, the meals between the deities and the men, the meals between the monarchs. The latter, political meals, originate around 3,000 years before our era. Food is there only a support of the essential which is elsewhere: it is there to form a consensus between the elites, to organize the powers. And we observe that the permanent obsession is to give food to the people.

And when we do not succeed any more, as will be the case in France in 1789, the revolution arrives.

Lack of food is the main cause of the uprisings everywhere. The Chinese empire has collapsed several times over the impossibility of giving food to the people, the Egyptian empire too and the French Revolution, in fact, is provoked and exacerbated by errors in public management in matters of supply and terrible climatic situations which succeed one another, leading in June 1789 to a surge in wheat prices, which reached their highest level during the century. It is then that the French peasants ally themselves with the bourgeois against the dignitaries of the regime, which will ultimately cause the fall of the monarchy in our country.

Later, France, in its obsession to feed its population, will continue to maintain a very specific relationship with its agriculture which will lead it in particular - for its good or for its evil - to delay the massive migrations of the peasants towards the cities .

But we could cite many other examples such as what happened in Germany where the rise of Hi**er - we have not emphasized it enough - is largely due to the collapse of the peasant class and the famine that followed.

One of the strong points of your book is this at least subversive thesis that you defend, according to which the worst enemy of the meal is capitalism. Explain to us.

Eating is, in effect, a subversive act for capitalism. Because when you eat, it's time you spend not doing anything else, you don't produce. So you have to reduce the time and money spent on meals at all costs. It will be the American revolution of the mid-nineteenth century, which will kick off the industrialization of food. This will spread and still determine today the ratio of men to food.

It is all the more surprising since the many migrants from Europe have chosen the United States for the abundance they hope to find there. However, they are quickly made to understand that they must give it up.

It is the alliance between Will Keith Kellogg and Henry John Heinz that will determine what has become contemporary food. Mr. Kellog, who is close to the evangelists, says, “It is a sin to find pleasure in eating. Mr. Heinz replied: "Put a little sauce on the food to mask the bad taste. "

However, everything follows from this alliance. We will spend less and less money on food, which will open the way to other consumption. The consequence is the destruction of the time spent at the meal. Almost everywhere in the world its duration has been considerably reduced. It is now less than an hour on average worldwide. American capitalism will develop on the bashing of all the dimensions of the meal. We eat quickly, often at work, less and less with family and this state of affairs structures societies where we become more and more lonely.

You say that the 20th century was the worst food ever. Why ?

The disaster is twofold. First there is, as we have just seen, the virtual disappearance of the meal. Then there is the nature of what we eat. For the poorest classes, the problem remains almost unchanged, it lies in the very difficulty of finding food. For the middle and upper classes, it is the nature of the products consumed that changes.

It begins as a sweet symphony. In the middle of the XIXth century, under the impulse of the armies, in particular those of Napoleon, portable food was generalized. Coffee, chocolate, milk and later corned beef. In the 20th century, the invention of fast food exploded in the United States. The American model becomes planetary. Corn sugar, disastrous for health, is generalized in food, in sodas. Chemical artificialization sets in to reach its peak today. Note that it is always chemists who invent sodas. And that etymologically, the word "soda" comes from "soda". If we remembered, we might drink less.

But is it not this industrialization which now shelters famines for a large part of humanity?

It is quite true, we see it in the Indian world or in China, but at what price? With what checks drawn on the future? We have certainly created the provisional conditions for the absence of famine, but using a model that cannot be generalized or sustainable in the long term because of the consumption of water or the massive use of fertilizer it imposes.

In this context, how can we feed the 10 billion human beings who should populate the planet in 2050?

There are two possible routes. One likely path and another desirable. The likely thing is that we will gradually find substitutes, in the form of artificial meat, algae, insects - 2 billion humans already eat them regularly - which will lead us overall to become more and more more vegetarians. It would also be a homecoming. I remind you that, in the Bible, Adam and Eve are vegetarians. We only start to eat meat from Noah.

We can also imagine a more desirable scenario, that of the deindustrialisation of food. This is in particular what the FAO (United Nations Food Organization, NDLR) recommends. It imagines an ideal model that would feed 10 billion people exclusively in organic. But that supposes gigantic transformations of agriculture, of the regime of land ownership, of the training of peasants. This also implies very strict regulations imposed on the giants of the food industry. In terms of product composition, packaging. For consumers, this presupposes getting supplies close to home with seasonal ingredients.

Industrialize organic farming to democratize it

All this is obviously possible in theory, much more difficult to achieve in practice. These are structural changes in social organization. If there is ever a real major political revolution, it is in agriculture and food that will be the cause.

We were talking at the beginning of this interview about the role of food in the creation of empires. Can it, conversely, hasten their disappearance or at the very least their weakening?

I am sure of it. And when I say that, I'm obviously thinking of the United States. Look at what is happening there, especially in the field of obesity which literally destroys their population without the public authorities, prisoners of powerful lobbies being able to stop this scourge. Today, it should be remembered, life expectancy is decreasing in this country, partly because of the way its inhabitants eat. Recall that the Roman Empire was partially destroyed by management errors in food.

If we want to build sustainable gastronomy that respects the environment in the long term, we must go through controlled capitalism. And from this point of view, technology can help us. Soon the fridges will be connected. And the master of the fridge will be the insurance company, which will have had access to your data. You will then know which fate awaits you according to the way you eat. Nothing like the fear of death to make us accept the unacceptable, in this case, a profound change in our eating habits.

مقابلة

جاك أتالي: "نموذجنا الغذائي الحالي لا يمكن أن يستمر"

في كتابه "قصص الغذاء" ، يظهر كتابه الجديد "جاك أتالي" الدور المركزي الذي لعبه الطعام في تطور العالم. كما أنه يدعو إلى تغيير عميق في عاداتنا الغذائية لإنقاذ كوكبنا.

الافتتاحية والتحليل

جاك أتالي رئيس Planet Finance. (Benoit DECOUT / REA)

بقلم نيكولاس باري ودانيال فورتين

تم النشر في 19 أبريل 2019 الساعة 7:42 صباحًا تم التحديث في أبريل 19 ، 2019 الساعة 1:59 مساءً

تكتب في ديباجة كتابك أن "الطعام كان أكثر من حاجة أساسية منذ فجر التاريخ". نكتشف ، بالفعل ، أن نقرأ لكم ، إلى أي مدى لعب - وما زال يلعب - دورًا مركزيًا في هيكلة مجتمعاتنا.

جاك أتالي: كل منشآتنا الاجتماعية ولدت من الطعام. مع تقدم الإنسان في تطوره ، يتغير نظامه الغذائي ويتحسن. نذهب من التجمع إلى الصيد ، ثم من الصيد إلى الثقافة. أصبحت الأدوات مثل الأسلحة أكثر تعقيدًا. يصبح الطعام آكل اللحوم. ونتيجة لذلك ، يتزايد عدد السكان.

تشير هذه التركيبة السكانية الراكدة إلى أن الرجال لم يعودوا راضين عما تقدمه لهم الطبيعة للطعام. عليهم أن ينظموا. ننتقل من البدوية إلى التهدئة. منذ 7.000 سنة ، بدأ الرجال يستقرون حول السهول الخصبة. عندها تنشأ الحاجة إلى هيكلة مجتمعاتنا.

وتكتب أن هذه الحتمية لإطعام المجتمع البشري المتنامي ستؤدي إلى إنشاء الإمبراطوريات.

الإعلان

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في الواقع ، نراه على سبيل المثال في بلاد ما بين النهرين. 6000 سنة قبل الميلاد ، كان على الفلاحين بناء سدود للتغلب على الفيضانات وإنتاج المزيد. لتحقيق ذلك ، يجب أن نجمع معا في مجموعات أكبر. ومن هنا ظهر مفهوم الإمبراطورية ، أولاً في بلاد ما بين النهرين ، ثم في مصر ، في وقت لاحق في الصين ، دائمًا حول الأنهار.

في هذا الوقت أيضًا أصبحت الوجبات أساسية لأنماط حياتنا.

نعم ، تصبح الوجبة المستقرة ، معًا ، مكانًا أساسيًا للتنظيم الاجتماعي. في الآثار المكتوبة التي وجدناها قادمة من مختلف الحضارات البشرية حول - 7000 ، تتشكل الأعياد أو الولائم: هناك وجبة الآلهة ، الوجبات بين الآلهة والرجال ، الوجبات بين الملوك. والأخير ، وجبات سياسية ، نشأت قبل عصرنا بحوالي 3000 سنة. الطعام لا يوجد سوى دعم من الضروري في أي مكان آخر: هناك لتشكيل إجماع بين النخب ، لتنظيم السلطات. ونلاحظ أن الهوس الدائم هو إعطاء الطعام للناس.

وعندما لم ننجح بعد الآن ، كما هو الحال في فرنسا عام 1789 ، وصلت الثورة.

قلة الطعام هي السبب الرئيسي للانتفاضات في كل مكان. لقد انهارت الإمبراطورية الصينية عدة مرات بسبب استحالة تقديم الطعام للشعب ، والإمبراطورية المصرية أيضًا ، والثورة الفرنسية ، في الواقع ، تثيرها وتفاقمها أخطاء في الإدارة العامة في مسائل التوريد والمواقف المناخية الرهيبة التي نجحت بعضها البعض ، مما أدى في يونيو 1789 إلى ارتفاع أسعار القمح ، والتي وصلت إلى أعلى مستوياتها خلال القرن. عندها يتحالف الفلاحون الفرنسيون مع البرجوازيين ضد شخصيات النظام ، الأمر الذي سيؤدي في نهاية المطاف إلى سقوط الملكية في بلادنا.

في وقت لاحق ، ستواصل فرنسا ، في هاجسها لإطعام سكانها ، الحفاظ على علاقة محددة للغاية مع الزراعة التي ستقودها على وجه الخصوص - لخيرها أو لسوءها - لتأخير الهجرة الجماعية للفلاحين نحو المدن .

لكن يمكننا أن نذكر العديد من الأمثلة الأخرى مثل ما حدث في ألمانيا حيث صعود هتلر - لم نؤكده بما فيه الكفاية - يرجع إلى حد كبير إلى انهيار طبقة الفلاحين و المجاعة التي تلت ذلك.

واحدة من النقاط القوية في كتابك هي هذه الأطروحة التخريبية التي تدافع عنها على الأقل ، والتي وفقًا لها ، فإن الرأسمالية هي أسوأ أعداء الوجبة. اشرح لنا.

الأكل ، في الواقع ، عمل تخريبي للرأسمالية. لأنه عندما تأكل ، حان الوقت الذي تقضيه في عدم القيام بأي شيء آخر ، لا تنتج. لذلك عليك تقليل الوقت والمال الذي تنفقه على الوجبات بأي ثمن. وستكون الثورة الأمريكية في منتصف القرن التاسع عشر ، ستبدأ تصنيع الغذاء. هذا سوف ينتشر ولا يزال يحدد اليوم نسبة الرجال إلى الطعام.

والأمر الأكثر إثارة للدهشة هو أن العديد من المهاجرين من أوروبا اختاروا الولايات المتحدة للوفرة التي يأملون في العثور عليها هناك. ومع ذلك ، يتم جعلهم يفهمون بسرعة أنه يجب عليهم التخلي عنها.

إنه التحالف بين Will Keith Kellogg و Henry John Heinz الذي سيحدد ما أصبح طعامًا معاصرًا. يقول السيد كيلوغ ، المقرب من المبشرين ، "إنها خطيئة أن تجد متعة في الأكل. رد السيد هاينز: "ضع القليل من الصلصة على الطعام لإخفاء الطعم السيئ. "

ومع ذلك ، كل شيء يتبع هذا التحالف. سننفق أموالاً أقل وأقل على الطعام ، الأمر الذي سيفتح الطريق أمام الاستهلاك الآخر. والنتيجة هي تدمير الوقت الذي يقضيه في الوجبة. تقريبا في كل مكان في العالم تم تقليص مدته إلى حد كبير. إنها الآن أقل من ساعة في المتوسط ​​في جميع أنحاء العالم. سوف تتطور الرأسمالية الأمريكية على ضرب جميع أبعاد الوجبة. نحن نأكل بسرعة ، في كثير من الأحيان في العمل ، أقل وأقل مع العائلة وهذه الحالة من الأمور تبني المجتمعات حيث نصبح أكثر وحيدا.

أنت تقول أن القرن العشرين كان أسوأ طعام على الإطلاق. لماذا؟

الكارثة ذات شقين. أولاً هناك ، كما رأينا للتو ، الاختفاء الظاهري للوجبة. ثم هناك طبيعة ما نأكله. بالنسبة للفئات الأكثر فقراً ، تبقى المشكلة دون تغيير تقريبًا ، فهي تكمن في صعوبة العثور على الطعام. بالنسبة للطبقات الوسطى والعليا ، فإن طبيعة المنتجات المستهلكة هي التي تتغير.

يبدأ كسمفونية حلوة. في منتصف القرن التاسع عشر ، تحت اندفاع الجيوش ، ولا سيما نابليون ، تم تعميم الطعام المحمول. البن والشوكولاتة والحليب ولحم البقر المقرمش لاحقًا. في القرن العشرين ، انفجر اختراع الوجبات السريعة في الولايات المتحدة. يصبح النموذج الأمريكي كوكبيًا. يتم تعميم سكر الذرة ، الكارثي للصحة ، في الغذاء ، في المشروبات الغازية. يصل التصنيع الكيميائي إلى ذروته اليوم. لاحظ أن الكيميائيين دائمًا هم من اخترع المشروبات الغازية. ومن حيث الأصل ، تأتي كلمة "صودا" من "صودا". إذا تذكرنا ، قد نشرب أقل.

ولكن أليس هذا التصنيع هو الذي يؤوي المجاعات الآن لجزء كبير من البشرية؟

هذا صحيح تماما ، نراه في العالم الهندي أو في الصين ، ولكن بأي ثمن؟ مع ما الشيكات المرسومة على المستقبل؟ لقد أنشأنا بالتأكيد الظروف المؤقتة لغياب المجاعة ، ولكن باستخدام نموذج لا يمكن تعميمه أو استدامته على المدى الطويل بسبب استهلاك المياه أو الاستخدام المكثف لل السماد الذي تفرضه.

في هذا السياق ، كيف يمكننا إطعام 10 مليارات من البشر الذين يجب أن يسكنوا الكوكب في عام 2050؟

هناك طريقان ممكنان مسار واحد محتمل وآخر مرغوب. الشيء المحتمل هو أننا سنجد تدريجياً بدائل ، على شكل لحوم صناعية ، طحالب ، حشرات - 2 مليار إنسان يأكلونها بالفعل بانتظام - الأمر الذي سيقودنا بشكل عام إلى أن نصبح أكثر فأكثر المزيد من النباتيين. سيكون كذلك عودة للوطن. أذكركم أن آدم وحواء نباتيان في الكتاب المقدس. نبدأ فقط في أكل اللحوم من نوح.

يمكننا أيضًا أن نتخيل سيناريو مرغوبًا أكثر ، وهو سيناريو التصنيع الصناعي للغذاء. وهذا على وجه الخصوص ما توصي به منظمة الأغذية والزراعة (منظمة الأمم المتحدة للأغذية والزراعة). إنها تتخيل نموذجًا مثاليًا من شأنه إطعام 10 مليار شخص حصريًا في المواد العضوية. ولكن هذا يفترض التحولات العملاقة للزراعة ، ونظام ملكية الأراضي ، وتدريب الفلاحين. وهذا يعني أيضًا لوائح صارمة للغاية مفروضة على عمالقة صناعة المواد الغذائية. من حيث تكوين المنتج والتغليف. بالنسبة للمستهلكين ، يفترض هذا الحصول على إمدادات قريبة من المنزل بمكونات موسمية.

تصنيع الزراعة العضوية لإضفاء الطابع الديمقراطي عليها

من الواضح أن كل هذا ممكن من الناحية النظرية ، وهو أكثر صعوبة في الممارسة العملية. هذه هي التغييرات الهيكلية في التنظيم الاجتماعي. إذا كانت هناك ثورة سياسية كبرى حقيقية ، فستكون هي السبب في الزراعة والغذاء.

كنا نتحدث في بداية هذه المقابلة عن دور الطعام في إنشاء الإمبراطوريات. هل يمكن ، على العكس ، أن يعجل باختفائهم أو على الأقل ضعفهم؟

أنا متأكد من ذلك. وعندما أقول ذلك ، أفكر بوضوح في الولايات المتحدة. انظر إلى ما يحدث هناك ، لا سيما في مجال السمنة الذي يدمر سكانها حرفياً بدون السلطات العامة ، حيث يتمكن سجناء جماعات الضغط القوية من وقف هذه الآفة. واليوم ، يجب أن نتذكر أن متوسط ​​العمر المتوقع ينخفض ​​في هذا البلد ، ويرجع ذلك جزئيًا إلى الطريقة التي يأكل بها سكانها. تذكر أن الإمبراطورية الرومانية دمرت جزئيا بسبب أخطاء الإدارة في الغذاء.

إذا أردنا أن نبني فن الطهو المستدام الذي يحترم البيئة على المدى الطويل ، يجب علينا أن نمر برأسمالية خاضعة للرقابة. ومن وجهة النظر هذه ، يمكن للتكنولوجيا أن تساعدنا. قريبا سيتم توصيل الثلاجات. وستكون شركة الثلاجة هي شركة التأمين ، التي ستتمكن من الوصول إلى بياناتك. ستعرف بعد ذلك المصير الذي ينتظرك وفقًا للطريقة التي تتناولها. لا شيء مثل الخوف من الموت يجعلنا نقبل التغيير غير المقبول ، في هذه الحالة ، لتغيير عميق في عاداتنا الغذائية.

INTERVIEW

Jacques Attali: "Unser aktuelles Lebensmittelmodell kann nicht lange halten"

In „Food Stories“, seinem neuen Buch, zeigt Jacques Attali die zentrale Rolle, die Lebensmittel in der Entwicklung der Welt gespielt haben. Es erfordert auch eine tiefgreifende Änderung unserer Essgewohnheiten, um unseren Planeten zu retten.

Editorials & Analyse

Jacques Attali, Präsident von Planet Finance. (Benoit DECOUT / REA)

Von Nicolas Barré, Daniel Fortin

Gepostet am 19. April 2019 um 07:42 Uhr Aktualisiert am 19. April 2019 um 13:59 Uhr

Sie schreiben in der Präambel Ihres Buches, dass "Essen seit Anbeginn der Zeit mehr als ein Grundbedürfnis ist". Wir entdecken in der Tat, um Ihnen vorzulesen, inwieweit es eine zentrale Rolle bei der Strukturierung unserer Gesellschaften gespielt hat und immer noch spielt.

Jacques Attali: Alle unsere sozialen Konstruktionen werden aus Nahrung geboren. Während der Mensch sich weiterentwickelt, ändert und verbessert sich seine Ernährung. Wir gehen vom Sammeln zur Jagd, dann von der Jagd zur Kultur. Werkzeuge wie Waffen werden immer komplexer. Essen wird fleischfressend. Infolgedessen nimmt die menschliche Bevölkerung zu.

Diese galoppierende Demographie impliziert, dass Männer nicht mehr mit dem zufrieden sein können, was die Natur ihnen zum Essen bietet. Sie müssen sich organisieren. Wir bewegen uns vom Nomadentum zur Sedentarisierung. Vor 7.000 Jahren begannen sich Männer in den fruchtbaren Ebenen niederzulassen. Dann entsteht die Notwendigkeit, unsere Gesellschaften zu strukturieren.

Und Sie schreiben, dass dieses Gebot, eine wachsende menschliche Gemeinschaft zu ernähren, zur Schaffung von Imperien führen wird.

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In der Tat sehen wir es zum Beispiel in Mesopotamien. 6.000 Jahre vor Christus mussten die Bauern Dämme bauen, um die Überschwemmungen zu überwinden und mehr zu produzieren. Um dies zu erreichen, müssen wir uns zu größeren Gruppen zusammenschließen. Daher das Erscheinen des Reichsbegriffs, zuerst in Mesopotamien, dann in Ägypten, später in China, immer um Flüsse herum.

Zu dieser Zeit standen auch die Mahlzeiten im Mittelpunkt unseres Lebensstils.

Ja, die sitzende Mahlzeit zusammen wird schnell zum wesentlichen Ort für die soziale Organisation. In den schriftlichen Spuren, die wir aus den verschiedenen menschlichen Zivilisationen um 7000 gefunden haben, nehmen die Feste oder Bankette Gestalt an: Es gibt das Mahl der Götter, das Mahl zwischen den Gottheiten und den Männern, das Mahl zwischen den Monarchen. Letztere, politische Mahlzeiten, entstehen etwa 3.000 Jahre vor unserer Zeit. Essen gibt es nur eine Unterstützung des Wesentlichen, was anderswo ist: Es ist da, um einen Konsens zwischen den Eliten zu bilden, um die Mächte zu organisieren. Und wir beobachten, dass die permanente Besessenheit darin besteht, den Menschen Nahrung zu geben.

Und wenn es uns nicht mehr gelingt, wie es 1789 in Frankreich der Fall sein wird, kommt die Revolution.

Mangel an Nahrung ist die Hauptursache für die Aufstände überall. Das chinesische Reich ist mehrmals zusammengebrochen, weil es unmöglich ist, dem Volk Nahrung zu geben, auch das ägyptische Reich, und die Französische Revolution wird tatsächlich durch Fehler in der öffentlichen Verwaltung in Bezug auf die Versorgung provoziert und verschärft und schreckliche Klimasituationen, die aufeinander folgen und im Juni 1789 zu einem Anstieg der Weizenpreise führten, die ihren höchsten Stand im Laufe des Jahrhunderts erreichten. Dann verbünden sich die französischen Bauern mit den Bourgeois gegen die Würdenträger des Regimes, was letztendlich den Fall der Monarchie in unserem Land verursachen wird.

Später wird Frankreich in seiner Besessenheit, seine Bevölkerung zu ernähren, weiterhin ein sehr spezifisches Verhältnis zu seiner Landwirtschaft unterhalten, was es insbesondere - zum Guten oder zum Schlechten - dazu veranlassen wird, die massiven Migrationen von Bauern in die Städte zu verzögern .

Aber wir könnten viele andere Beispiele anführen, wie zum Beispiel das, was in Deutschland passiert ist, wo der Aufstieg Hi**ers - wir haben es nicht genug betont - größtenteils auf den Zusammenbruch der Bauernklasse zurückzuführen ist und die folgende Hungersnot.

Eine der Stärken Ihres Buches ist diese zumindest subversive These, die Sie verteidigen und nach der der Kapitalismus der schlimmste Feind des Essens ist. Erklären Sie uns.

Essen ist in der Tat ein subversiver Akt für den Kapitalismus. Denn wenn Sie essen, ist es Zeit, nichts anderes zu tun, Sie produzieren nicht. Sie müssen also um jeden Preis den Zeit- und Geldaufwand für Mahlzeiten reduzieren. Es wird die amerikanische Revolution Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts sein, die die Industrialisierung der Lebensmittel einleiten wird. Dies wird sich ausbreiten und noch heute das Verhältnis von Männern zu Nahrungsmitteln bestimmen.

Dies ist umso überraschender, als die vielen Migranten aus Europa die Vereinigten Staaten wegen der Fülle ausgewählt haben, die sie dort finden möchten. Sie werden jedoch schnell zu dem Verständnis gebracht, dass sie es aufgeben müssen.

Es ist die Allianz zwischen Will Keith Kellogg und Henry John Heinz, die bestimmen wird, was zu zeitgenössischem Essen geworden ist. Herr Kellog, der den Evangelisten nahe steht, sagt: „Es ist eine Sünde, Freude am Essen zu haben. Herr Heinz antwortete: "Geben Sie ein wenig Sauce auf das Essen, um den schlechten Geschmack zu maskieren. ""

Aus dieser Allianz folgt jedoch alles. Wir werden immer weniger Geld für Lebensmittel ausgeben, was den Weg für anderen Konsum ebnet. Die Folge ist die Zerstörung der Zeit, die beim Essen verbracht wird. Fast überall auf der Welt wurde die Dauer erheblich verkürzt. Mittlerweile sind es weltweit weniger als eine Stunde. Der amerikanische Kapitalismus wird sich auf der Grundlage aller Dimensionen des Essens entwickeln. Wir essen schnell, oft bei der Arbeit, immer weniger mit der Familie und dieser Zustand strukturiert Gesellschaften, in denen wir immer einsamer werden.

Sie sagen, dass das 20. Jahrhundert das schlechteste Essen aller Zeiten war. Warum?

Die Katastrophe ist zweifach. Erstens gibt es, wie wir gerade gesehen haben, das virtuelle Verschwinden der Mahlzeit. Dann gibt es die Natur dessen, was wir essen. Für die ärmsten Klassen bleibt das Problem nahezu unverändert, es liegt in der Schwierigkeit, Nahrung zu finden. Für die Mittel- und Oberschicht ändert sich die Art der konsumierten Produkte.

Es beginnt als süße Symphonie. In der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts wurden unter dem Impuls der Armeen, insbesondere der Napoleons, tragbare Lebensmittel verallgemeinert. Kaffee, Schokolade, Milch und später Corned Beef. Im 20. Jahrhundert explodierte die Erfindung des Fast Food in den Vereinigten Staaten. Das amerikanische Modell wird planetarisch. Maiszucker, der für die Gesundheit katastrophal ist, wird in Lebensmitteln und in Limonaden verallgemeinert. Die chemische Künstlichkeit erreicht heute ihren Höhepunkt. Beachten Sie, dass es immer Chemiker sind, die Limonaden erfinden. Und das etymologisch kommt das Wort "Soda" von "Soda". Wenn wir uns erinnern würden, könnten wir weniger trinken.

Aber ist es nicht diese Industrialisierung, die jetzt Hungersnöte für einen großen Teil der Menschheit schützt?

Es ist ganz richtig, wir sehen es in der indischen Welt oder in China, aber zu welchem ​​Preis? Mit welchen Schecks auf die Zukunft gezogen? Wir haben sicherlich die vorläufigen Bedingungen für die Abwesenheit von Hungersnot geschaffen, verwenden jedoch ein Modell, das aufgrund des Wasserverbrauchs oder des massiven Einsatzes von nicht verallgemeinerbar oder langfristig nachhaltig ist Dünger, den es auferlegt.

Wie können wir in diesem Zusammenhang die 10 Milliarden Menschen ernähren, die den Planeten 2050 bevölkern sollen?

Es gibt zwei mögliche Routen. Ein wahrscheinlicher Weg und ein anderer wünschenswert. Die wahrscheinliche Sache ist, dass wir nach und nach Ersatzstoffe in Form von künstlichem Fleisch, Algen und Insekten finden werden - 2 Milliarden Menschen essen sie bereits regelmäßig -, was uns insgesamt dazu führen wird, immer mehr zu werden mehr Vegetarier. Es wäre auch eine Heimkehr. Ich erinnere Sie daran, dass Adam und Eva in der Bibel Vegetarier sind. Wir fangen erst an, Fleisch von Noah zu essen.

Wir können uns auch ein wünschenswerteres Szenario vorstellen, nämlich die Deindustrialisierung von Lebensmitteln. Dies empfiehlt insbesondere die FAO (Ernährungsorganisation der Vereinten Nationen, NDLR). Es stellt sich ein ideales Modell vor, das 10 Milliarden Menschen ausschließlich mit Bio-Produkten ernähren würde. Dies setzt jedoch gigantische Veränderungen der Landwirtschaft, des Regimes des Landbesitzes und der Ausbildung der Bauern voraus. Dies impliziert auch sehr strenge Vorschriften, die den Giganten der Lebensmittelindustrie auferlegt werden. In Bezug auf Produktzusammensetzung, Verpackung. Für die Verbraucher setzt dies voraus, dass die Versorgung mit saisonalen Zutaten in der Nähe des Hauses erfolgt.

Industrialisierung des ökologischen Landbaus, um ihn zu demokratisieren

All dies ist theoretisch offensichtlich möglich, in der Praxis viel schwieriger zu erreichen. Dies sind strukturelle Veränderungen in der sozialen Organisation. Wenn es jemals eine wirklich große politische Revolution gibt, werden Landwirtschaft und Ernährung die Ursache sein.

Wir haben zu Beginn dieses Interviews über die Rolle von Lebensmitteln bei der Schaffung von Imperien gesprochen. Kann es umgekehrt ihr Verschwinden oder zumindest ihre Schwächung beschleunigen?

Da bin ich mir sicher. Und wenn ich das sage, denke ich offensichtlich an die Vereinigten Staaten. Schauen Sie sich an, was dort passiert, insbesondere im Bereich der Fettleibigkeit, die ihre Bevölkerung buchstäblich zerstört, ohne dass die Behörden, Gefangene mächtiger Lobbys, diese Geißel stoppen können. Heute sollte daran erinnert werden, dass die Lebenserwartung in diesem Land sinkt, auch aufgrund der Art und Weise, wie die Einwohner essen. Erinnern Sie sich daran, dass das Römische Reich teilweise durch Managementfehler in Lebensmitteln zerstört wurde.

Wenn wir eine nachhaltige Gastronomie aufbauen wollen, die langfristig die Umwelt respektiert, müssen wir einen kontrollierten Kapitalismus durchlaufen. Und aus dieser Sicht kann uns die Technologie helfen. Bald werden die Kühlschränke angeschlossen. Und der Herr des Kühlschranks wird die Versicherungsgesellschaft sein, die Zugriff auf Ihre Daten hatte. Sie werden dann wissen, welches Schicksal Sie je nach Art des Essens erwartet. Nichts wie die Angst vor dem Tod, die uns dazu bringt, die inakzeptable, in diesem Fall tiefgreifende Änderung unserer Essgewohnheiten zu akzeptieren.

面试

雅克·阿塔利（Jacques Attali）：“我们目前的食物模式无法持久”

在他的新书《食品的故事》中，雅克·阿塔利（Jacques Attali）展示了食品在世界进化中所起的核心作用。 它还要求我们改变饮食习惯，以拯救地球。

社论与分析

星球财经总裁雅克·阿塔利（Jacques Attali）。 （Benoit DECOUT / REA）

尼古拉斯·巴雷（NicolasBarré），丹尼尔·佛丁（Daniel Fortin）

发表于2019年4月19日上午7:42更新于2019年4月19日下午1:59

您在书的序言中写道：“自从天亮以来，食物已不仅仅是基本需求”。 实际上，我们发现要读给您听，它在我们的社会结构中扮演了-并且仍然扮演着-核心角色。

雅克·阿塔利（Jacques Attali）：我们所有的社会建设都是以食物为基础的。 随着人的进化，他的饮食也随之改变和改善。 我们从聚会到狩猎，再到从狩猎到文化。 诸如武器之类的工具正变得越来越复杂。 食物变成肉食。 结果，人口在增加。

奔腾的人口统计学意味着，人们不再满足于自然为他们提供的食物。 他们必须组织起来。 我们从游牧转向久坐。 7,000年前，人们开始在肥沃的平原上定居。 正是在那时，才需要建立我们的社会。

而且您写道，养活不断增长的人类社区的这种紧迫性将导致建立帝国。

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确实，我们在美索不达米亚看到它。 公元前6000年，农民不得不修建水坝以克服洪水并增加产量。 为了实现这一目标，我们必须将其分成更大的组。 因此，帝国的概念首先出现在美索不达米亚，然后出现在埃及，然后出现在中国，始终围绕河流。

正是在这个时候，膳食成为我们生活方式的核心。

是的，久坐不动的饭食很快就成为社会组织的基本场所。 在我们发现的书面痕迹中，它们来自不同的人类文明-大约7000年，盛宴或宴会逐渐成形：有神的饭菜，神与人之间的饭菜，君主之间的饭菜。 后者，即政治饭菜，起源于我们时代之前的大约3000年。 粮食只有其他地方的必需品的支持：它是在精英之间形成共识，组织权力的地方。 我们观察到，永久的困扰是向人民提供食物。

当我们不再成功时，就像1789年法国那样，革命就来了。

缺粮是各地起义的主要原因。 由于无法向人民提供食物，中国帝国崩溃了好几次，埃及帝国也崩溃了，事实上法国大革命由于供应问题中公共管理的错误而激化和加剧了。 恶劣的气候形势相继发生，导致1789年6月小麦价格飙升，达到本世纪以来的最高水平。 到那时，法国农民与资产阶级结盟，反对政权贵族，这最终将导致我国君主制的垮台。

后来，法国由于热衷于养活人口，将继续与农业保持非常特殊的关系，这将特别导致法国（无论其好坏）延迟农民向城市的大规模迁徙 。

但是，我们可以举出许多其他例子，例如德国发生的事情，在那儿，希特勒的崛起-我们没有足够强调-很大程度上是由于农民阶级的崩溃和 随后的饥荒。

这本书的优点之一是您捍卫的这一至少具有颠覆性的论点，根据这一论点，这顿饭的最大敌人是资本主义。 向我们解释。

实际上，饮食是对资本主义的颠覆行为。 因为当您吃饭时，该花时间不做其他事情了，您没有生产。 因此，您必须不惜一切代价减少花费在吃饭上的时间和金钱。 这将是十九世纪中叶的美国革命，它将开始食品的工业化。 这种情况将蔓延，并且今天仍然决定着人与食物的比例。

更令人惊讶的是，由于许多欧洲移民选择了美国，因为他们希望在美国找到大量的美国。 但是，很快就会使他们明白必须放弃它。

威尔·基思·凯洛格和亨利·约翰·亨氏之间的联盟将决定什么已经成为当代食品。 与传教士们亲近的凯洛格先生说：“在饮食上找到乐趣是一种罪过。 亨氏先生回答：“在食物上放些酱油以掩盖不良味道。 ”

但是，一切都源自这个联盟。 我们将在食品上花费越来越少的钱，这将为其他消费开辟道路。 结果是浪费了用餐时间。 在世界上几乎所有地方，其持续时间都大大减少了。 现在，全世界平均不到一小时。 美国的资本主义将在打击所有方面的饭菜上发展。 我们吃饭很快，经常在工作中，与家人的关系越来越少，而这种状况使我们变得越来越孤独。

您说20世纪是有史以来最糟糕的食物。 怎么了

灾难是双重的。 首先，正如我们刚刚看到的，这顿饭实际上已经消失了。 然后就是我们所吃食物的本质。 对于最贫穷的阶级来说，问题几乎没有改变，这是因为很难找到食物。 对于中产阶级和上层阶级，所消费产品的性质发生了变化。

它以甜美的交响乐开始。 在十九世纪中叶，在军队，特别是拿破仑军队的冲动下，便携式食品得到了普遍应用。 咖啡，巧克力，牛奶和后来的咸牛肉。 在20世纪，快餐的发明在美国激增。 美国模式成为行星。 危害健康的玉米糖广泛存在于食品和苏打水中。 化学人工合成即将达到今天的顶峰。 请注意，发明纯碱的总是化学家。 从词源上讲，“苏打”一词来自“苏打”。 如果我们记得的话，我们可能会少喝酒。

但是，难道不是这种为大部分人类提供饥荒的工业化吗？

的确如此，我们在印度世界或中国都可以看到它，但价格是多少？ 对未来有哪些检查？ 我们当然已经创造了没有饥荒的临时条件，但是使用的模型由于水的消耗或大量使用而无法长期推广或维持。 施肥。

在这种情况下，我们如何养活2050年应在地球上居住的100亿人口？

有两种可能的路线。 一条可能的道路，另一条理想的道路。 可能的事情是，我们将逐步找到人造肉，藻类，昆虫等形式的替代品-20亿人已经定期食用它们-这将使我们总体上变得越来越多 更多素食主义者。 这也将是一个归乡。 我提醒您，在圣经中，亚当和夏娃是素食主义者。 我们只是从诺亚开始吃肉。

我们还可以想象一个更理想的方案，即食品去工业化。 这尤其是粮农组织（联合国粮食组织，NDLR）的建议。 它设想了一种理想的模式，该模式将仅以有机方式养活100亿人。 但是，这需要农业，土地所有权制度和农民培训的巨大变革。 这也意味着对食品行业巨头施加了非常严格的规定。 在产品组成，包装方面。 对于消费者而言，这是前提条件，即使用季节性食材在家附近采购耗材。

工业化有机农业使其民主化

所有这些显然在理论上是可能的，而在实践中则很难实现。 这些是社会组织的结构性变化。 如果发生真正的重大政治革命，那就是农业和粮食。

在本次采访的开头，我们谈到的是食物在建立帝国中的作用。 相反，它能加速它们的消失，或者至少加速它们的减弱吗？

我相信。 当我这么说时，我显然是在考虑美国。 看看那里发生了什么，特别是在肥胖领域，在没有公共当局的情况下，他们的确毁了他们的人口，强大的游说犯人能够制止这种祸害。 今天，应该记住，这个国家的预期寿命正在减少，部分原因是其居民的饮食方式。 回想一下，罗马帝国因食品管理失误而被部分摧毁。

如果我们要建立长期尊重环境的可持续美食，就必须经历受控的资本主义。 从这个角度来看，技术可以为我们提供帮助。 不久，冰箱将被连接。 冰箱的主人将是保险公司，该公司可以访问您的数据。 然后，您将知道根据饮食方式而定的命运。 在这种情况下，没有什么比对死亡的恐惧更使我们接受无法接受的饮食习惯了。

ENTREVISTA

Jacques Attali: "Nuestro modelo actual de alimentos no puede durar"

En "Food Stories", su nuevo libro, Jacques Attali muestra el papel central que la comida ha jugado en la evolución del mundo. También exige un cambio profundo en nuestros hábitos alimenticios para salvar nuestro planeta.

Editoriales y Análisis

Jacques Attali, presidente de Planet Finance. (Benoit DECOUT / REA)

Por Nicolas Barré, Daniel Fortin

Publicado el 19 de abril de 2019 a las 7:42 a.m.Actualizado el 19 de abril de 2019 a las 1:59 p.m.

Usted escribe en el preámbulo de su libro que "la comida ha sido más que una necesidad básica desde el principio de los tiempos". Descubrimos, de hecho, leerle, en qué medida ha jugado, y todavía juega, un papel central en la estructuración misma de nuestras sociedades.

Jacques Attali: Todas nuestras construcciones sociales nacen de la comida. A medida que el hombre progresa en su evolución, su dieta cambia y mejora. Pasamos de la recolección a la caza, luego de la caza a la cultura. Herramientas como las armas se están volviendo más complejas. La comida se vuelve carnívora. Como resultado, la población humana está aumentando.

Esta demografía galopante implica que los hombres ya no pueden estar satisfechos con lo que la naturaleza les ofrece como alimento. Tienen que organizarse. Pasamos del nomadismo a la sedentarización. Hace 7,000 años, los hombres comenzaron a establecerse alrededor de las llanuras fértiles. Es entonces cuando surge la necesidad de estructurar nuestras sociedades.

Y usted escribe que este imperativo de alimentar a una comunidad humana en crecimiento conducirá a la creación de imperios.

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De hecho, lo vemos por ejemplo en Mesopotamia. 6,000 años antes de Cristo, los campesinos tuvieron que construir presas para superar las inundaciones y producir más. Para lograr esto, debemos agruparnos en grupos más grandes. De ahí la aparición del concepto de imperio, primero en Mesopotamia, luego en Egipto, luego en China, siempre alrededor de los ríos.

También fue en este momento que las comidas se volvieron centrales para nuestros estilos de vida.

Sí, la comida sedentaria, en conjunto, se convierte rápidamente en el lugar esencial para la organización social. En las huellas escritas que encontramos provenientes de las diversas civilizaciones humanas alrededor de 7000, las fiestas o banquetes toman forma: está la comida de los dioses, las comidas entre las deidades y los hombres, las comidas entre los monarcas. Estas últimas, las comidas políticas, se originan alrededor de 3.000 años antes de nuestra era. La comida es solo un soporte de lo esencial que está en otra parte: está allí para formar un consenso entre las élites, para organizar los poderes. Y observamos que la obsesión permanente es dar comida a la gente.

Y cuando ya no tengamos éxito, como será el caso en Francia en 1789, llega la revolución.

La falta de alimentos es la causa principal de los levantamientos en todas partes. El imperio chino se ha derrumbado varias veces por la imposibilidad de dar comida al pueblo, el imperio egipcio también y la Revolución Francesa, de hecho, es provocada y exacerbada por errores en la gestión pública en materia de suministro. y situaciones climáticas terribles que se suceden, lo que llevó en junio de 1789 a un aumento en los precios del trigo, que alcanzó su nivel más alto durante el siglo. Es entonces cuando los campesinos franceses se alían con los burgueses contra los dignatarios del régimen, lo que finalmente causará la caída de la monarquía en nuestro país.

Más t**de, Francia, en su obsesión por alimentar a su población, continuará manteniendo una relación muy específica con su agricultura, lo que lo llevará en particular, para bien o para mal, a retrasar las migraciones masivas de campesinos hacia las ciudades. .

Pero podríamos citar muchos otros ejemplos, como lo que sucedió en Alemania, donde el surgimiento de Hi**er, que no se ha enfatizado lo suficiente, se debe en gran medida al colapso de la clase campesina y la hambruna que siguió.

Uno de los puntos fuertes de su libro es esta tesis al menos subversiva que defiende, según la cual el peor enemigo de la comida es el capitalismo. Explícanos

Comer es, en efecto, un acto subversivo para el capitalismo. Porque cuando comes, es tiempo que pasas sin hacer nada más, no produces. Por lo tanto, debe reducir el tiempo y el dinero gastados en comidas a toda costa. Será la revolución estadounidense de mediados del siglo XIX, que dará inicio a la industrialización de los alimentos. Esto se extenderá y todavía determinará hoy la proporción de hombres a alimentos.

Es aún más sorprendente ya que los muchos inmigrantes de Europa han elegido a los Estados Unidos por la abundancia que esperan encontrar allí. Sin embargo, se les hace comprender rápidamente que deben renunciar.

Es la alianza entre Will Keith Kellogg y Henry John Heinz lo que determinará qué se ha convertido en comida contemporánea. El Sr. Kellog, quien está cerca de los evangelistas, dice: “Es un pecado encontrar placer en comer. El Sr. Heinz respondió: "Pon un poco de salsa en la comida para enmascarar el mal sabor. "

Sin embargo, todo se desprende de esta alianza. Gastaremos cada vez menos dinero en alimentos, lo que abrirá el camino a otros consumos. La consecuencia es la destrucción del tiempo dedicado a la comida. Casi en todo el mundo, su duración se ha reducido considerablemente. Ahora es menos de una hora en promedio en todo el mundo. El capitalismo estadounidense se desarrollará en el ataque de todas las dimensiones de la comida. Comemos rápido, a menudo en el trabajo, cada vez menos con la familia y este estado de cosas estructura las sociedades donde nos sentimos cada vez más solos.

Dices que el siglo XX fue la peor comida de todas. Por qué ?

El desastre es doble. Primero está, como acabamos de ver, la virtual desaparición de la comida. Luego está la naturaleza de lo que comemos. Para las clases más pobres, el problema permanece casi invariable, radica en la dificultad de encontrar comida. Para las clases medias y altas, lo que cambia es la naturaleza de los productos consumidos.

Comienza como una dulce sinfonía. A mediados del siglo XIX, bajo el impulso de los ejércitos, especialmente los de Napoleón, se generalizó la comida portátil. Café, chocolate, leche y luego corned beef. En el siglo XX, la invención de la comida rápida explotó en los Estados Unidos. El modelo estadounidense se vuelve planetario. El azúcar de maíz, desastrosa para la salud, se generaliza en los alimentos, en los refrescos. La artificialización química se establece para alcanzar su pico hoy. Tenga en cuenta que siempre son los químicos quienes inventan los refrescos. Y que etimológicamente, la palabra "refresco" viene de "refresco". Si recordamos, podríamos beber menos.

¿Pero no es esta industrialización la que ahora alberga hambrunas para una gran parte de la humanidad?

Es bastante cierto, lo vemos en el mundo indio o en China, pero ¿a qué precio? ¿Con qué cheques dibujados en el futuro? Ciertamente, hemos creado las condiciones provisionales para la ausencia de hambruna, pero utilizando un modelo que no puede ser generalizado o sostenible a largo plazo debido al consumo de agua o al uso masivo de fertilizante que impone.

En este contexto, ¿cómo podemos alimentar a los 10 mil millones de seres humanos que deberían poblar el planeta en 2050?

Hay dos rutas posibles. Un camino probable y otro deseable. Lo más probable es que gradualmente encontremos sustitutos, en forma de carne artificial, algas, insectos (2 mil millones de humanos ya los comen regularmente), lo que nos llevará en general a ser más y más Más vegetarianos. También sería un regreso a casa. Les recuerdo que, en la Biblia, Adán y Eva son vegetarianos. Solo comenzamos a comer carne de Noah.

También podemos imaginar un escenario más deseable, el de la desindustrialización de los alimentos. Esto es en particular lo que recomienda la FAO (Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación, NDLR). Se imagina un modelo ideal que alimentaría a 10 mil millones de personas exclusivamente en productos orgánicos